Exhibition Preview

China’s Terracotta Warriors: The First Emperor’s Legacy

“Qin, beginning with an insignificant amount of territory, reached the power of a great state and for a hundred years made all the other great lords pay homage to it.”
—Jia Yi (201–169 BCE), Han dynasty poet and statesman

By the time Zheng, the future First Emperor, was born in 259 BCE, the state of Qin (pronounced CHIN) was already nearly six centuries old. It was waging war with neighboring states for supremacy at the same time Rome was battling Carthage for the upper hand in the Mediterranean. Qin, like Rome, would ultimately prevail. Under the leadership of Qin Shihuang, or First Emperor of Qin, China’s seven warring states were unified as one nation for the first time.

The works of art in this exhibition trace the tumultuous rise of Qin from a regional power of humble origins to a superpower and illuminate the political, economic, and cultural reforms that, along with the terracotta warriors, remain today as the First Emperor’s legacy.

Armored General
鎧甲將軍俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta H. 198 cm (77 15/16 in)
Excavated from Pit 1, Qin Shihuang tomb complex 1980
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum, Shaanxi 000847

A portrait impression of the First Emperor from the eighteenth-century album Lidai diwang xiang (Portraits of emperors throughout dynasties). No images of the First Emperor survive from his time.

Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor

The universe entire
Is our Emperor’s realm,
Extending west to the Desert,
South to where the houses face north,
East to the East Ocean,
North to beyond Tahsia,
Wherever human life is found,
All acknowledge his sovereignty.
—Imperial inscription on Mount Langya, 219 BCE

One of the most remarkable figures in China’s long and spectacular history, Qin Shihuang (First Emperor of Qin) became king of the ambitious state of Qin in 246 BCE at the age of just thirteen. Over the next twenty-five years he defeated Qin’s neighboring rival states, uniting them in a realm that established China much as we know it today.

On ascending the throne, the young king also began planning for his death, beginning the construction of a tomb of grand proportions and extraordinary richness that would ensure his passage to and comfort in the afterlife. His obsessive quest for immortality led him to commission a tomb on a scale never seen before or since. Sealed beneath an imposing mound in the shadow of Mount Li, the emperor’s tomb forms the heart of a vast burial complex stretching over 22 square miles, which was known only through local legends until a chance discovery by farmers digging a well in 1974.

In Depth: Philosophy and Ferment

Philosophy and Ferment

A time of turmoil and disunity, the Eastern Zhou (770–221 BCE) was also an era of philosophical and cultural ferment. Itinerant philosophers roamed the various independent states, advising rulers and advancing their own ideas.

The towering figures of Chinese thought lived during these turbulent times: Laozi (born c. 570 BCE), the founder of Daoism, seeking harmony with nature; Confucius (born 551 BCE) and his followers Mencius (372–289 BCE) and Xunzi (c. 298–238 BCE), promoting harmony and order on earth through adherence to ritual and hierarchy; Mozi (died 391 BCE), advocating morality and order through universal love; and Shang Yang (died 330 BCE) and Han Feizi (died 233 BCE) with their ruthless doctrine of political and social order through the strict enforcement of law.

Most of these great figures served at some point as government officials in the warring states. Their writings and teachings have continued to influence Chinese thought down to the present day.

View Map Close window

Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE)

From State to Empire

Qin [is] greedy, violent, keen for profit and untrustworthy. It knows nothing about traditional etiquette, proper relations and virtuous conduct. If it sees something profitable before it, just like a wild animal it will disregard relatives and brothers.
—Xu Jia, courtier of the state of Wei, 275 BCE

With the end of the relatively stable Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–771 BCE), China fell into five centuries of conflict as a number of states competed for power. The origins of the state of Qin lay in the remote, far western regions of China, in present-day Gansu province. Protected by natural barriers and with a well-disciplined military, Qin gradually expanded eastward into the fertile plains of the Wei and Yellow river valleys.

The fortunes of the Qin changed dramatically during the mid-4th century BCE. Sweeping political and administrative reforms introduced by the brilliant, visionary, and ruthless statesman Shang Yang and his follower Han Feizi turned the state of Qin into a formidable force. Through a series of brutal military victories and shrewd diplomatic maneuvers over the next century, Qin gained territory and power.

The works of art in this gallery and part of the next date from the Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) and Warring States (475–221 BCE) periods, when the Qin state’s rise to power accelerated, culminating in the unification of China under the First Emperor in 221 BCE.

In Depth: Ceramics

Ceramics

From the dawn of the Shang dynasty in about 1600 BCE to the founding of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, China’s ceramic tradition was overshadowed by its dominant and defining bronze culture.

Toward the end of the Spring and Autumn period, in the 5th century BCE, constant warfare and declining wealth made bronze increasingly difficult to obtain. While bronze vessels were still used for ritual and ceremonial purposes among the elite, less expensive earthenware alternatives became popular with the middle and lower classes. In both form and decoration, the examples here are faithful replicas of their more costly bronze counterparts.

Close window

In Depth: Ritual Bronzes

Ritual Bronzes

In ancient China, ritual and ceremony were considered crucial for maintaining order and understanding the social hierarchy. To this end, an enormous and imaginative range of ceremonial bronze vessels was made. Inscriptions on many of them help identify their function and the nature of the rituals—the celebration of a military success or a marriage, a plea for a good harvest, or, most often, a sacrifice to satisfy ancestral spirits.

Close window

In Depth: Gold and Silver

Gold and Silver

Although bronze vessels are the defining art of ancient China, gold and silver were also used. These metals were favored for objects of special value such as belt buckles, ornaments, and the most refined ritual objects.

Close window

In Depth: Jade

Jade

Jin you jia; yu wu jia 金有价，玉無價
Gold has a price, but jade is priceless.
—Chinese traditional expression

Jade is a stone of subtle intensity, color, and above all, hardness and durability. It has been held in the highest esteem throughout China’s history and is used for objects of special ritual, symbolic, or personal value. Most Qin jades are flat plaques decorated with meander or fret patterns reminiscent of earlier dragon or serpent motifs. Jade is an enduring symbol of purity, strength, nobility, and integrity.

Close window

Bo bell
秦公鎛
Spring and Autumn period, Duke Wu’s reign (697–678 BCE)
Bronze, H. 69.6 cm (273⁄8 in), W. (bell) 28.4 cm (113⁄16 in)
Excavated at Taigongmiao village, Yangjiagou in Baoji, Shaanxi, 1978
Baoji Bronze Museum, Shaanxi 02755/IA5.4

Sword with inlaid openwork hilt
金柄蟠虺紋鑲嵌寶石鐵劍
Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE)
Bronze, H. 69.6 cm (273⁄8 in), W. (bell) 28.4 cm (113⁄16 in)
Excavated at Taigongmiao village, Yangjiagou in Baoji, Shaanxi, 1978
Baoji Bronze Museum, Shaanxi 02755/IA5.4

Warring States (475–221 BCE) period

Tiger
金虎
Warring States period (475–221 BCE)
Gold, H. 2.3 cm (7⁄8 in), L. 4.8 cm (17⁄8 in)
Excavated at Fengxiang, Shaanxi, 1979 Xi’an Municipal Museum, Shaanxi 3gj70

Hu vessel
錯金銀寶石雲紋雙耳壺
Warring States period (475–221 BCE), Wei state
Bronze with inlaid gold, silver, and precious stones
Baoji Bronze Museum

Rise of the First Emperor

Qin [is] greedy, violent, keen for profit and untrustworthy. It knows nothing about traditional etiquette, proper relations and virtuous conduct. If it sees something profitable before it, just like a wild animal it will disregard relatives and brothers.
—Imperial inscription on Mount Langya, 219 BCE

In 259 BCE, the king and queen of Qin welcomed their first son. They called him Zheng, meaning “upright.” Zheng’s father died after reigning just three years, and Zheng ascended the throne at the age of thirteen. His mother and the prime minister served as regents for the young king. When he turned twenty-one, Zheng took control and set out to conquer the neighboring states of Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, and Qi. By 221 BCE he had annexed them all and within the year proclaimed himself Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor of Qin.

In Depth: Palace Architecture

Palace Architecture

The city of Yong served as the Qin capital from 677 to about 383 BCE. Historical records relate that its scale and opulence prompted a visiting ambassador to remark, “If it was built by ghosts then it would have exhausted their energy; if it was built by people then it would have caused them great suffering.”

Recent excavations have shown that the major palaces and buildings in Yong were constructed of wood atop platforms of tamped (packed) earth. Architectural fragments such as patterned ceramic tiles and hollow bricks (used for flooring), bronze fixtures, ornamental roof tile ends, and drainpipes hint at the magnificence of the palaces and other buildings of the Qin capital.

Close window

In Depth: Xianyang: Heaven on Earth

Xianyang: Heaven on Earth

Toward the end of the 4th century BCE, the Qin capital was moved eastward along the Wei River to Xianyang, near present-day Xi’an. Xianyang remained the capital for over 140 years, until the demise of the Qin dynasty.

The First Emperor undertook a major expansion of Xianyang, transforming an already thriving city into the political, economic, and cultural center of the empire. Palaces, imperial gardens, and government buildings, designed to mirror the celestial realm, were constructed in the Wei valley. Covered walkways and tunnels connected them so that the emperor, increasingly obsessed with his mortality, could keep his whereabouts secret.

In 212 BCE, work began on Epang Palace, believed to be the largest, most luxurious palace ever built. It was estimated that more than 700,000 laborers worked on the project. The First Emperor did not live to see its completion, but construction continued after his death in 210 BCE. When Xianyang fell to rebel armies three years later, Epang and the other palaces were set on fire along with the emperor’s tomb. According to the historian Sima Qian, they burned continuously for three months.

Close window

In Depth: Bronze Chariot Fittings

Bronze Chariot Fittings

The ancient practice of including implements and animals important to daily life in burials ensured a comfortable afterlife for deceased ancestors and showed them respect. From the beginning of the Shang dynasty in about 1600 BCE, the burials of nobles and rulers often included chariots and horses. While the horses and wooden chariots have long since decayed, many of the bronze chariot fittings survive. These ornamental fittings were cast with great skill to achieve intricate detail and feature motifs borrowed from bronze vessels of the time.

Close window

Light Infantry and Archers

The First Emperor’s Rule

The emperor, never hearing his faults condemned, is growing prouder and prouder while those below cringe in fear and try to please him with flattery and lies.
—Qin necromancers Housheng and Lusheng (Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, 89 BCE)

The First Emperor was ruthless in his ambition to control and reform his empire. He instituted sweeping political, economic, and social reforms to establish order and bring the new territories under his direct control. He undertook a series of inspection tours “to show his might and pacify the realm.” He erected monuments extolling his achievements and made sacrifices to gain favor with heaven and the immortals. He also imposed harsh punishments, even death, on intellectuals and others who spoke in opposition to his administration.

In 210 BCE, the First Emperor set out for the south and east coasts on what would be his final imperial inspection tour. When he reached Shaqiu (in present-day Hebei province), he became gravely ill and died. Fearing an uprising, the prime minister, Li Si, went to great lengths to keep the emperor’s death secret. Over the following weeks, as the body was carried back to the capital, imperial orders were issued as usual. Carts of rotting fish escorted the emperor’s carriage to mask the smell of the decomposing body. Two months later, the emperor was buried in his tomb in the shadow of Mount Li.

Armored kneeling archer
鎧甲跪射俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Light infantryman
輕裝步兵俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Imperial Reform and Legacy

All men under the sky
Toil with a single purpose;
Tools and measures are made uniform,
The written script is standardized
Wherever the sun and moon shine.

—Imperial inscription on Mount Langya, 219 BCE

Although his reign as king and emperor lasted only thirty-six years, the First Emperor’s legacy endured for more than two thousand. Working with his prime minister, Li Si, the emperor replaced the old aristocratic and feudal structures with a centralized bureaucratic system. He codified laws; standardized writing, weights and measures, and currency; undertook major architecture and infrastructure programs that included grand palaces, the Great Wall, imperial roadways, and his own tomb; and established sophisticated systems to manage the production and distribution of goods and resources throughout the empire. The human cost of these reforms was staggering. Hundreds and thousands labored and died to implement the First Emperor’s decrees. Described as villain, tyrant, and revolutionary, he remains one of history’s most influential and intriguing figures.

In Depth: Bells and Music

Bells and Music

In ancient China, music played an important role not only in rituals and ceremonies but also in battle, as a means of conveying orders. Bronze bells and drums were the main instruments of the time. The tombs of many Qin royals and nobles contained sets of bells with finely cast ornament in the style of bronze ritual vessels.

Several bronze bells were found in the First Emperor’s burial complex. The terracotta musicians also found at the site are evidence of music’s importance as courtly entertainment—in the earthly life and the afterlife. It is recorded that the First Emperor, unhappy in his quest for immortality, sought consolation in listening to songs played and sung by his court musicians.

Close window

Charioteer, Calvary Figures and Horses

Cavalry horse
鞍馬俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Chariot horse
車馬俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Burial

They poured molten copper and bronze to make the outer coffin, and the tomb was filled with models of palaces, pavilions, and offices as well as fine vessels, precious stones, and rarities.
—Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, 89 BCE

Guarded by his terracotta army, the First Emperor was buried in his tomb at the foot of Mount Li in the ninth month of 210 BCE. The treasures that accompanied him into the tomb for his life in the next world are described in the colorful Records of the Grand Historian. To deter thieves, automated crossbows were installed so that anyone entering the tomb would be shot. For fear the artisans “might disclose all the treasure that was in the tomb,…after the burial and sealing up of the treasures, the middle gate was shut and the outer gate closed to imprison all the artisans and laborers, so that not one came out.”

About three-quarters of a mile east of the tomb, the terracotta army was deployed to guard the “spirit road” leading to the tomb entry. However, during rebellions in 206 BCE, the pits containing this formidable array of soldiers were set on fire; excavation has revealed scorched timbers and terracotta fragments.

Terracotta Army

As soon as the First Emperor became king of Qin, excavations and building started at Mount Li, and after he won the empire more than 700,000 conscripts from all parts of the country worked there.
—Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, 89 BCE

The First Emperor began the planning and construction of his vast burial city soon after he became king at age thirteen.

The tomb itself is described at length in ancient texts and is marked by a high mound, but the terracotta army remained unknown, with no mention in historical records or visibility in the landscape. Its chance discovery in 1974 took the world by surprise.

In sheer numbers and scale, the terracotta army is a remarkable achievement. Artistically and technically it stands alone in the arts of China. As the ritual bronzes and other works in this exhibition show, Chinese art of earlier times had a largely ceremonial function and was ornamented with symbolic geometric or animal-inspired patterns and motifs. With the terracotta army, the First Emperor’s intent was to replicate the real world in his afterlife. Such realism was revolutionary, starting a new tradition that was to flourish in the Han and Tang dynasties that followed, though never on the same grand scale.

In Depth: Battle Formation of the Terracotta Army

Battle Formation of the Terracotta Army

Covering an area of more than six acres, the terracotta army pits are estimated to contain 7,000 life-size warriors, 140 chariots, 560 chariot horses, and 124 cavalry horses. To date, more than 2,000 warriors have been unearthed, along with many thousands of weapons, all real and many still razor sharp. From Pit 1 alone, over 40,000 weapons and arrowheads have so far been recovered.

The army’s location (nearly a mile east of the burial mound) and orientation (facing east, away from the tomb) confirm that it was meant to guard and secure the entrance to the First Emperor’s tomb.

Close window

In Depth: A Revolution in Art

A Revolution in Art

The eight terracotta soldiers and two horses on display in this room and the adjacent two galleries represent the main figure types making up the First Emperor’s terracotta army.

While the figures within each type are broadly similar, no two are identical. Their life-size scale and meticulous realistic detailing had no precedent in Chinese art. The details reveal much about the military hierarchy and about battle dress of the time. Above all, the astonishing realism of these terracotta warriors and horses was truly a revolution in the art of China.

Close window

In Depth: Constructing the Pits

Constructing the Pits

The pits containing the terracotta army lie about 15 to 20 feet below current ground level. The figures are placed in tunnels along an east-west axis. The floors and walls were reinforced with rammed earth. A wooden framework of pillars and crossbeams enclosed the tunnel, supporting a ceiling of reed mats, clay, and rammed earth; the floors were paved with pottery bricks. Ramps gave access to the pits so the warriors could be moved into position. Once the army was installed, the entire structure was covered with topsoil.

During uprisings at the end of the Qin dynasty, the emperor’s burial complex was plundered by rebels. It was almost certainly at this time that the terracotta army in Pit 1 was damaged and parts of the timber framework set on fire, causing the tunnels to collapse, smashing some of the warriors into pieces.

Close window

In Depth: Making the Figures

Making the Figures

Faced with a project that had no precedent, the officials put in charge of making the terracotta army turned to established processes and techniques. They commissioned workshops expert at producing ceramic building materials (such as the roof tile ends and bricks displayed in the previous galleries). In the workshops, teams made up of master and craftsmen divided the process into a series of steps, using molds and prefabricated modules where possible.

In general, the figures were built up from foot to head. The base, feet, and hands are solid. The bodies, heads, and arms are hollow, each made separately in molded, slab, or coiled segments and joined before firing. Also before firing, each figure, human and horse, was covered with a fine layer of clay to allow details to be carved by hand. Pigment remaining on many of the figures indicates that they were painted after firing.

Close window

Charioteer
鎧甲禦手俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Officers and Armed Infantry

Crane
銅鶴
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Bronze
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Swan
銅天鵝
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Bronze
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Quest for Immortality

The necromancer Lusheng reported to the emperor, “Our search for magic fungus, rare herbs, and immortals has come to nothing.”
—Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, 89 BCE

By the time of the First Emperor, the belief in immortality was long established in Chinese culture. Since the Bronze Age, funeral ceremonies had been held to ensure the welfare of the deceased in the next world. The Chinese believed that preserving the body and providing the comforts and protections of earthly life would give immortality to the soul. They also believed that their ancestors continued to influence the affairs of the living; honoring the deceased was a constant concern.

The First Emperor was legendary for his obsession with his own afterlife. Believing himself the mediator between heaven and earth, he sought herbs and elixirs of immortality. He journeyed to the summits of the great sacred mountains to be close to the immortals and performed rituals to gain their favor. Nowhere is his quest for immortality more powerfully expressed than in his tomb.

Eternal City

All the country’s rivers…were reproduced in quicksilver and by some mechanical means made to flow into a miniature ocean. The heavenly constellations were shown above and the region of the earth below.
—Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, 89 BCE

The First Emperor’s tomb chamber remains hidden to this day under its burial mound at the foot of Mount Li. Still to be excavated, the tomb is said to contain an underground palace, with all the amenities and activities of palace life represented. Like the palaces and plan of his capital city, Xianyang, it also mirrors the celestial realm. Excavations of the surrounding area have revealed a complex of offices, reception halls, stables, sacrificial pits, an armory, and even an imperial zoo. There are life-size figures of officials, acrobats, musicians, animals, and birds, some of which are on display in this room.

Also buried with the emperor were a number of his palace officials, concubines, and others, to serve him in eternity.

In Depth: Discovery and Excavation

Discovery and Excavation

When I first saw the heads in the ground I thought we had dug up something related to an ancestor, I thought maybe we were discovering our grandfather.
—Yang Xinman, the farmer who discovered the terracotta army in March 1974

In March 1974, local farmers digging a well in the village of Xiyang in Lintong, Shaanxi province, struck a number of large pottery fragments. The chance discovery brought to light the existence of the First Emperor’s guardian army, previously undocumented and unknown.

In revealing an ancient undertaking of epic proportions, the discovery also began a new story of remarkable achievement: the ongoing excavation of the First Emperor’s burial site. Working continuously for more than thirty-five years, teams of archaeologists have gradually been piecing together a picture of this underground eternal city and its extraordinary material and symbolic content.

Close window

In Depth: Weapons

Weapons

Bronze spears, swords, daggers, and arrowheads have been recovered from countless tombs in the traditional Qin homelands of Gansu and Shaanxi provinces. All confirm the technical sophistication of Qin weapons, the quantity of resources invested in their production, and the high level of skill required to make them.

Probably the most common weapons of the Qin period were the ge (dagger-ax) and mao (spear), long familiar in the repertoire of ancient Chinese arms. Occasional inscriptions on weapons identify an owner, a date, or a maker. Some weapons were clearly made for ceremonial rather than military use.

Close window

Armored military officer (detail)
中級軍吏俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

EPILOGUE

Armored infantryman
鎧甲步兵俑
Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Terracotta
Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum

Qin, beginning with an insignificant amount of territory, reached the power of a great state and for a hundred years made all the other great lords pay homage to it. Yet after it had become master of the whole empire…its ruler died by the hands of men…Why? Because it had failed to rule with humanity and righteousness and to realize that the power to attack and the power to retain what one had thereby won, are not the same.
—Jia Yi (201–169 BCE), Han dynasty poet and statesman

Following the First Emperor’s death in 210 BCE, his advisers conspired to hand the throne to his second son, Huhai. They forced the suicide of the emperor’s eldest son, Fusu, and decreed Huhai the rightful heir. Huhai’s reign was brief (210–207 BCE), and the Third Emperor’s was even shorter. Weakened by a rising tide of rebellion against the Qin empire, the capital Xianyang was seized by a rebel army led by Liu Bang in 206 BCE. The next dynasty, the Han, began in 206 BCE.